WBls:0000023 vs WBls:0000710

First, during exposure zinc did not affect survival, whereas it induced mild to moderate postexposure mortality in the larval stage and at metamorphosis, and very strongly reduced adult lifespan.

However, it did not completely prevent lactogenic transmission of A. caninum larvae because five out of 23 puppies from three litters of the treated bitches harboured adult worms in their intestines, two of them shed eggs with the faeces.

No apparent phenotype could be observed in αFTZ-F1 knockdown larvae, or in their development to adults, and no genes were found to be differentially expressed in the nauplii larvae following αFTZ-F1 knockdown. βFTZ-F1 knockdown in nauplii larvae caused both down and upregulation of genes associated with proteolysis and chitin binding and affected a large number of genes which are in normal salmon louse development expressed in a cyclical pattern.

The timing of expression of these markers is not affected by heterochronic mutations that cause larval animals to express adult cuticles or adult animals to express larval cuticles, indicating that marker expression can be uncoupled from general cuticle development.

This was then used to demonstrate that the worm moved away from toxic concentrations of Cd2+ and Cu2+, but not Ni2+, all ions that prevented development from larval to adult stages.

Administering a CNG channel blocker to worm larvae activates intestinal UPRER and increases adult longevity.

The studies presented here were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of a novel, oral chewable tablet containing sarolaner, moxidectin and pyrantel (Simparica Trio™), against induced larval (L4), immature adult (L5) and adult A. caninum, and adult U. stenocephala infections in dogs.

Two treatments (12 and 24 μg ivermectin/kg wet dung) were used for the larvae reared in dung, and one much higher concentration (3000 μg ivermectin/kg sugar) for the adult flies (in addition to uncontaminated controls).

Although larval motility was barely affected by both treatments (p > 0.05), adult worm motility was inhibited 100% and 86.9% after 24 h incubation with CuQ and CaR, respectively (p < 0.05).

Macrocyclic lactones kill third- and fourth-stage larvae of Dirofilaria immitis, thus preventing the development of adult worms in dogs, which are responsible for heartworm disease, a potentially life-threatening condition.

Compared to EB alone, the combined treatment delayed larval molting by 1.2 days, suppressed feeding (18.3 % reduction in frass weight and 11.1 % weight loss), reduced adult emergence by 12.3 %, shortened oviposition duration by 1.5 days, and decreased total fecundity by 42.5 %.

RDL dsRNA suppressed the expression of Ae-RDL mRNA in Ae. aegypti larvae and adult by 60% and 50.67%, resepectly.

Class A) against induced infestations of 3rd and 4th stage larvae and adults of Chabertia ovina, Dictyocaulus filaria, Haemonchus contortus (including a benzimidazole-resistant strain), Nematodirus spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, Ostertagia circumcincta (including a benzimidazole-resistant isolate), and Trichostrongylus colubriformis; an "A" class was also obtained against the 4th stage larvae and adults of Gaigeria pachyscelis and Strongyloides papillosis and natural infestations of adult Trichuris spp.

In these experiments larval and adult treatment, respectively, were employed and the respective controls revealed that also ageing before mating significantly increased male recovery and reduced non-disjunction.

An analysis of pooled data from a series of controlled studies is reported providing a single point of efficacy (+/- 95% confidence interval) for each gastrointestinal nematode tested at the fourth larval and/or adult stages.

Thus stressful events during both larval development (food limitation) and adulthood (forced flight) induce increased immune response in the adult butterflies, which may allow individuals to cope with stressful events later on in life.

In our previous work, a Trichinella spiralis putative serine protease (TsSP) was identified from ES products of T. spiralis intestinal infective larvae (IIL) and adult worms (AW) by immunoproteomics: it was highly expressed in IIL compared with muscle larvae (ML).

Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis) is a parasitic helminth that causes a globally prevalent neglected zoonotic disease, and worms at different developmental stages (muscle larvae, adult worms, newborn larvae) induce immune attack at different infection sites, causing serious harm to host health.

The TsA-12 dscDNA hybridizes to mRNA sequences expressed in both the muscle larvae and adult stages; however, concomitant expression of the native antigen is not observed within adult ES products.

RT-qPCR revealed that CsCP1-2 exhibited the highest expression in newly encysted larvae (NEL), while CsCP3 was predominantly expressed in adult stages.

Larval stages of A. novaezelandiae induced higher levels of plasma cortisol compared to uninfected controls, while adult parasites increased the levels of hepatic hsp70 above those of uninfected controls.

The highly significant (P<0.0001) ability to stop larval development (inhibition >67% for each extract) and the negative effect of the dichloromethane extract of leaf on adult worm motility (43% of inhibition of motility after 24h of incubation) compared to the negative controls, suggest anthelmintic properties of Musa x paradisiaca stem and leaf against H. contortus.

Schistosomes express five members of the sirtuin family and generic sirtuin inhibitors induce apoptosis and death in schistosome larvae, the disruption of adult worm pairs, inhibition of egg laying and damage to the male and female worm reproductive systems.

Expression analysis using available RNAseq data showed that both E. granulosus sequences are expressed in larval and adult stages.

These "prophylactic" drugs will target the infective third- (L3) and fourth-stage (L4) larvae of Onchocerca volvulus and consequently prevent the establishment of new infections not only in uninfected individuals but also in already infected individuals and thus reduce the overall adult worm burden and transmission.

The evaluated anthelmintic activity showed that the extracts at different doses, as well as all the compounds tested at 150 µg ml-1, inhibited the migration of the larvae and the motility of the adult worms of the parasite compared with the phosphate buffer solution negative reference control.

The crude extracts obtained by aqueous decoction and hydro-ethanolic maceration, as well as the nine isolated compounds, were tested for their anthelmintic activity on the larvae and adult worms of Haemonchus contortus, a hematophage that causes parasitic disorders in small ruminants.

The CFS of X. nematophila (pCEP_kan_XNC1_1711) caused 100, 100, 97.3, and 98.1% mortality on larvae, protonymph, deutonymph and adult female of T. urticae at 7 dpa in petri dish experiments; and significantly reduced T. urticae population in pot experiments.

DFB given orally (10 mg kg-1 per day for 30 days) to sheep inoculated with H. contortus infective larvae did not prevent the establishment of adults or affect fecal egg output.

Mice which had been infected with larvae exposed to 25 krad. of irradiation, which prevents development to the adult luminal stages, produced as weak haemagglutination responses to SRBC as mice infected with normal worms even when SRBC were administered 6 weeks after infection.

The eels' cortisol response is induced by larval stages of A. novaezelandiae, while adult stages elevate levels of hepatic hsp70.

A controlled and critical test on the efficacy of ivermectin against larval and adult stages of the cyathostomes was carried out in six yearling castrated male Shetland ponies.

The ability of oral tetracycline to inhibit the development of third-stage infective larvae (L3) of Brugia pahangi to adult worms in jirds was studied using 2 experimental protocols.

Efficacy of the IVM SR bolus was 100% against O ostertagi developing fourth-stage larvae (L4) and inhibited early L4, Haemonchus placei adults, Cooperia punctata and C spatulata adult males, Cooperia spp adult females, Cooperia spp L4, Trichostrongylus colubriformis adults, Bunostomum phlebotomum adults, and Oesophagostomum radiatum adults.

It was found that the rats treated daily with estradiol benzoate had significantly and consistently higher numbers of larvae and adult worms as compared with the controls.

The lymphocyte responses induced by O. ostertagi antigen extracts of the third (L3) and fourth (L4) larval stages, as well as adult worms, were analysed.

Because artemether selectively targets the larval migratory stages of the parasite, known as schistosomulae, it blocks the development of ovipositing adult schistosome worm pairs in the vasculature.

Infection of the nitrite-treated mice with T. spiralis L1 larvae caused a marked increase in the number of adult worms in the small intestine.

Treatment with trypsin, supplemented with fetal bovine serum (FBS), induces M. corti development from larvae (tetrathyridia) to segmented adult worm; however, the role of this protease and of FBS in post-larval development induction remains unknown.

R-III disrupted the development of larvae to pupae or adults with median concentration for inhibiting growth (IC(50)) values of only 1.36 mg L(-1) for third instars and 11.28 mg L(-1) for fifth instars.

Ability of implants to prevent infection with D immitis was evaluated in 2 further studies; dogs were challenged with 50 infective third-stage larvae 52 weeks after implant administration and necropsied 145 days after challenge, and the total number of adult heartworms was counted.

The highly significant (P<0.001) ability to stop larval development (inhibition>90% for each extract) and the negative effect of the dichloromethane and methanolic extracts on adult worm motility (inhibition of motility >59.2% after 24h of incubation) compared to the negative controls, suggest anthelmintic properties of C. moschata seed against H. contortus.

In the non-motile larvae resulting from exposure to the food flavoring, no adult worm was recovered from the extended larvae, indicating that they were no longer alive and unable to cause infection.

Treatments with 0.001-200 mg/L bromate all significantly reduced swimming linear speed to rotifer larvae and treatments with 100-200 mg/L bromate significantly suppressed the swimming linear speed of adult rotifer.

SeCuZnSOD was functionally expressed in both S. erinacei plerocercoid larvae and adult worms, and its expression level was significantly increased when the plerocercoid larvae were treated with paraquat.

The identification of NSC-641296 that specifically inhibits a unique biosynthetic pathway in H. contortus and has anthelmintic activity against both larval and adult stages of H. contortus, provides impetus for the development of urgently needed new efficacious anthelmintics to address the prevailing problem of anthelmintic-resistant H. contortus.

In T. spiralis infected mice, the two inhibitors also inhibited the activation of TLR-4/MAPK-NF-κB pathway, ameliorated intestinal inflammation, impeded larval invasion of gut mucosa and reduced intestinal adult burdens.

Immunization of mice with rTsPPase exhibited a 67.18, 54.78 and 51.91% reduction of intestinal infective larvae, adult worms and muscle larvae at 24 hours post infection (hpi), 6 days post infection (dpi) and 35 dpi, respectively (P < 0.05), and the larval molting and development was significantly inhibited by 45.45% at 24 hpi, compared to the MRS group.

TsCatL was transcribed and expressed in larvae and adults and located in the stichosome, gut and embryo.

Cry5B is able to intoxicate A. suum larvae and adults and triggers the activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway similar to that observed with other nematodes.

Larval stage infection induced protective efficacy by 99.92% against adult stage and 99.89% against muscle larvae.

The nature of the proteins which comprise the in vitro excretory/secretory products (ES) of the fourth-stage larva (L4) and adult Teladorsagia circumcincta are largely undefined, despite the fact that this nematode induces profound changes, in part related to parasite ES, in the cellular architecture of the glands lining the abomasal surface of infected sheep and goats.

Acquired immunity against Angiostrongylus cantonensis was induced by immunizing rats with somatic antigens from fifth-stage larvae and adult worms and live third-stage larvae.

Single stage intra-peritoneal infections with infective larvae (L3) or adult nematodes induce Th2 cells, while the microfilarial stage (Mf) stimulates IFN-gamma and Mf-specific IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b, IgG3 and IgM, but not IgE.

Visceral larva migrans caused by Toxocara canis is rarely taken into account in adult patients with cholestatic syndrome, especially when liver disease is not associated with hypereosinophilic reaction.

Bioassays with transgenic fruits on CBB first instar larvae and adults induced mortalities between 85 and 100% after 10 days.

Macrocyclic lactones can prevent heartworm disease in dogs, cats and ferrets by killing larvae before they develop into adult worms in the pulmonary artery.

While RNA interference knockdown of βFTZ-F1 in nauplius larvae and in pre-adult males lead to molting arrest, knockdown of βFTZ-F1 in pre-adult II female lice caused disruption of oocyte maturation at the vitellogenic stage.

Semi-quantitative RT-PCR demonstrated that a single dominant transcript of Tp Mn-SOD was highly expressed in the infective-stage larvae but not in adult worms.

The single-copy Drosophila muscle myosin heavy-chain (MHC) gene, located at 36B(2L), has a complex exon structure that produces a diversity of larval and adult muscle MHC isoforms through regulated alternative RNA splicing.

Anti-Tsp10 antibodies prevented the in vitro partial invasion of IECs by infective larvae and the mice immunized with the recombinant phage T7-Tsp10 showed a 62.8 % reduction in adult worms following challenge with T. spiralis muscle larvae.

Some of the compounds of both classes were deeply investigated and showed to impair viability of larval, juvenile, and adult schistosomes, to impact egg production in vitro and/or to induce morphological alterations of the adult schistosome reproductive systems.

Third-stage larvae (L3), adults, as well as serum-stimulated and hypobiotic L3 were used.

In Mesocestoides corti, a partial cDNA sequence related to SET/TAF-Iβ was isolated in a screening for genes differentially expressed in larvae (tetrathyridia) and adult worms.

In order to study the role of epigenetic mechanisms in regulating this program, and more particularly the role of changes in histone modifications in the control of the transcription of key genes, we have adapted the technique of quantitative chromatin immunoprecipitation (Q-ChIP) to larval stages and adult worms.

Heatmap clusterings based on overall expression and on select groups of genes representing 'signals' and 'switches' showed that expression in the Scolex-Neck region is more similar to that of Larvae than to the mature or gravid regions of the adult worm, which was further reflected in large overlap of up-regulated GOI.

Mesocestoides corti is a widely used model for the study of cestode biology, and its transition from the larval tetrathyridium (TT) stage to the strobilated, adult worm (ST) stage can be induced and followed in vitro.

Western blot and immunolocalization using pAb detected native TsTGH2 in crude worm antigens from muscle larvae and adults, showing it was mainly localized in the body wall muscles and the epithelia of the ovary and uterus.

Surprisingly, qPCR also showed that the receptor is 30x more expressed in the first larval stages than in adult animals.

All four mRNAs (Na-cp-2, -3, -4 and -5) are up-regulated during the transition from a free-living larva to a blood-feeding adult worm and are also expressed in gut tissue of adult N. americanus that was dissected using laser microdissection microscopy.

When the mice were pretreated with CK8 inhibitor Dasatinib and ROCK1 pathway inhibitor Y27632, and then orally infected with T. spiralis larvae, the activation of CK8 and RhoA/ROCK1 was significantly suppressed, intestinal permeability and adult worm burdens were obviously decreased, and intestinal inflammation was also distinctly alleviated.

Immunohistochemistry of larval and adult worm sections incubated with antiserum to the synthetic peptide and a secondary anti-rabbit IgG bound to fluorescein, revealed strong binding to the tegumentary surface of the worm, as well as patchy fluorescent areas in the parenchyma.

The objective of this study was to investigate the numbers of Ostertagia circumcincta and Trichostrongylus vitrinus infective larvae that were needed to induce diarrhoea in adult Merino sheep grazing improved pastures.

A hypersensitive inflammatory response, associated with the ingestion of trichostrongylid larvae, is a major cause of diarrhoea and soiling of the breech with faeces in adult Merino sheep ('hypersensitivity scours').

Responses to both larval and adult worms have a characteristic T-helper type 2 profile, with activated mast cells in the gut mucosa, elevated levels of circulating immunoglobulin E, and eosinophilia in the peripheral blood and local tissues, features also characteristic of type I hypersensitivity reactions.

In secondary screening (M coucha, subcutaneously inoculated with infective larvae), moxidectin at the same dose by subcutaneous route brought about death of 49% of adult worms besides causing sterilisation in 54% of the recovered live female worms.

It was found to be present in the worm tegument and expressed in both the larval and adult worms, but was found to be antigenic only in the lungs that the larvae migrate to and traverse.

Both of the functional S. mansoni glucose transporter genes are expressed in larval and adult male and female schistosomes.

The larva in nonpermissive hosts cannot develop into an adult worm and can cause eosinophilic meningitis and ocular angiostrongyliasis.

Interestingly, Nb-Hsp12.6 showed a biphasic temporal expression pattern; i.e., it was expressed in infective-L3 larvae and in adults during worm expulsion from immunocompetent rats.

We adopted an experimental model of induced colitis and exposed worms to intestinal inflammation at two different developmental stages (larvae and adults).

We showed that (1) Ov28CRP is a putative ganglioside GM2 Activator Protein (GM2AP) conserved in nematode; (2) OvGM2AP gene is transcriptionally activated in all investigated stages of the parasitic life cycle, including larval and adult stages; (3) The full-length OvGM2AP was detected in in-vitro O. volvulus ESPs of adult and larval stages; (4) the mass expressed and purified recombinant OvGM2AP purified from insect cell culture medium was found to be glycosylated at asparagine 173 and lacked N-terminal signal peptide sequence; (5) the recombinant OvGM2AP discriminated serum samples of infected and uninfected individuals; (6) OvGM2AP competitively inhibits MUG degradation by recombinant β-hexosaminidase A but not MUGS, and could not hydrolyze the GM2 to GM3; (7) humoral immune responses to the recombinant OvGM2AP revealed a negative correlation with ivermectin treatment.

Objectives of this work were to establish the specific correspondence between Contracaecum pelagicum L3 larvae parasitizing the anchovy Engraulis anchoita, and the adults parasitizing the Magellanic penguin Spheniscus magellanicus and the Imperial shag Phalacrocorax atriceps through the use of molecular markers; and, to evaluate the anisakid L3 larval recruitment and infection caused by ingestion of anchovy by S. magellanicus.

The larva cannot develop into an adult worm and only causes serious eosinophilic meningitis or meningoencephalitis if humans or mice eat food containing larva of A. cantonensis in the third stage.

Ppa-cel-2 shows high expression in larval and adult stages but is only low expressed in eggs, while Ppa-cel-3 is highly upregulated in adult worms but hardly detectable in any other stage.

The HSP20 transcript and protein were expressed in the infective larvae (L3), early L4 and adult stages, but expression was not increased by heat shock treatment.

The two Ov-spi transcripts are up-regulated in the molting larvae and adult stages of the development of the parasite.

The use of various nematodes, hosts, and fecal controls demonstrated the reliability of the primers for all developmental stages including L1's, third-stage larvae, and adult worms.

The cyclotides showed significant activity in inhibiting development of nematode larvae and motility of adult worms.

After exposure from L1-larvae to adult day-1, nanopolystyrene (100 μg/L) reduced brood size and induced severe germline apoptosis, and nanopolystyrene (10-100 μg/L) decreased locomotion behavior, induced obvious reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and activated noticeable mitochondrial unfolded protein response (mt UPR).

Namely, while the UPRMITO can only be induced during the larval stage, the UPRER can be induced until early adulthood and the inducibility of UPRCYTO is well maintained until mid-late stage of life.

In all larval and adult stages examined, UNC-3 is required for continuous expression of various protein classes (e.g. receptors, transporters) critical for MN function.

Together, these results show that C. elegans' pheromone is a signal that acts at two key life cycle points, controlling alternative larval fates and affecting adult hermaphrodites' reproduction.

In Caenorhabditis elgans, insulin-like peptides have significant roles in modulating larval diapause and adult lifespan via the insulin/IGF-1 signaling (IIS) pathway.

The transcriptomes reflect early larval stages, adult worms including late larvae, and growth-arrested dauer larvae and allowed the identification of developmentally regulated gene clusters.

First, we found that 1 μM Δ7-DA stimulated 100% of post-parasitic first-stage larvae (L1s) to develop to free-living adults instead of iL3 at 37°C, while 69.4±12.0% (SD) of post-parasitic L1s developed to iL3 in controls.

Overall, the signal transduction mechanisms that regulate switching between dauer and continuous reproductive development in Caenorhabditis elegans, and doubtless other free-living nematodes, have provided a useful framework for testing hypotheses about how the morphogenesis and development of infective parasitic nematode larvae and the lifespan of adult parasites are regulated.

As an example, we demonstrate the use of an integrated transgene that expresses a fluorescent product in an RNAi screen to identify genes required for the normal localization of this product in late stage larvae and adults.

Western blot showed that TsMRP-L28 was expressed in muscle larvae and adult worms.

In Caenorhabditis elegans, insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 signaling (IIS) is an important pathway that controls larval diapause and adult lifespan.

In larvae and adults, hif-1 acts to prevent hypoxia-induced diapause in 5,000 ppm O(2).

Dietary introduction of double-stranded RNA of LdRyR significantly reduced the mRNA levels of the target gene in the larvae and adults, respectively, and significantly decreased chlorantraniliprole-induced mortalities.

The Drosophila KCTD12 homologue Kctd12-like (Ktl) was highly expressed in both the larval and adult CNS.

Mutagenesis protocols typically call for exposure of late-stage larvae or adults to a mutagen with the intention of inducing mutations in a robust germ line.

Favorable conditions cause Caenorhabditis elegans to develop rapidly through four larval stages (L1-L4) to the reproductive adult.

Thus, like the larval-to-adult transition in Caenorhabditis elegans, the juvenile-to-adult transition in Arabidopsis is mediated by sequentially operating miRNAs. miR156 and miR172 are positively regulated by the transcription factors they target, suggesting that negative feedback loops contribute to the stability of the juvenile and adult phases.

Our study provides evidence for intricate interplay between the heterochronic circuit that controls developmental timing in larvae and the timing mechanism that modulates aging in adults.

In the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, a conserved insulin-like signaling pathway controls larval development, stress resistance and adult lifespan.

The insulin/insulin-like growth factor-I signaling (IIS) pathway regulates larval diapause, adult lifespan, fat metabolism, and stress-resistance in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.

In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, insulin-like signaling functions in larvae to inhibit dauer arrest and acts during adulthood to regulate lifespan.

The transcript of hcstk is expressed in different developmental stages (second-, third-, fourth-stage larvae and adults) and various organs (muscle, intestine and reproductive) of H. contortus.

In a recent study published in Science, demonstrate that genes required for autophagy act downstream of insulin-like signaling, and are involved in the expression of major life history traits, including dauer larva development and adult life span.

This switch is induced by starvation of late fourth-stage larvae, young adults, or gravid adults.

The pheromone increases the frequency of dauer larva formation and inhibits recovery but does not affect adult behavior such as chemotaxis and egg laying.

Temperature-sensitive mutations have been used to show that type IV collagen function is also required for larval development and adult fertility.

The C. elegans cysteine protease gene was temporally regulated: abundant 1.1-kb transcripts were detected in larvae and adults, but not in embryos.

Characterizations of the heat-sensitive allele demonstrate that mutants are also defective for regulated muscle contraction in larval and adult body wall muscle, defective for function of the nonstriated oviduct myoepithelial sheath, and defective for epidermal morphogenesis.

During Caenorhabditis elegans early larval development environmental conditions promote a cascade of signaling molecules to direct growth to the reproductive adult or to arrest development as a dauer larva.

The Ip from A. suum larvae was also characterized because Northern hybridization showed that the adult Ip is also expressed in L2.

Using the genetic model Caenorhabditis elegans, we found that chronic exposure to ethyl carbamate during larval development impedes growth while exposure during adulthood inhibits reproduction, shortens lifespan, and promotes degeneration to dopaminergic neurons.

Partitioned extracts from Pseudomonas sp. strain TE4607 stunted C. elegans development and caused motility defects in both blood-circulating larval and adult stages of Brugia.

Our findings reveal a temporal checkpoint of the DR response that protects larval development and promotes adult health.

Mucus peroxidase, arylsulphatase, larval migration inhibition of mucus, mucus or serum antibody against L3 excretory/secretory antigen or somatic L3, L4 and adult antigen were not associated with protection.

Using northern analysis to detect endogenous collagen mRNA levels and collagen/lacZ reporter constructs to monitor collagen transcriptional activity, we show that the stage-specific switch from larval cuticle to adult cuticle correlates with the transcriptional activation of adult-specific collagen genes and repression of larval-specific collagen genes.

A dominant Sdhd allele is likely to cause antagonistic pleiotropy for fitness through its opposing effects on larval metabolic and growth rate versus adult flight and dispersal, and may have additional effects arising from sensitivity to low-iron host plants.

Mesocestoides corti is a parasitic platyhelminth whose larvae can be induced in vitro to develop to adult, sexually mature worms, opening the possibility of studying the nervous system of a flatworm in different stages of development.

It was hypothesized that the herbs would block the cycles of the larvae, thereby preventing the development of adult worms.

Although the three stages of T. spiralis, i.e., infective larvae, adults and newborn larvae, are capable of activating C, the newborn appears to be the most potent activator, especially when parasite number and size are taken into consideration.

For mosquitoes and other vectors, when physiological impacts of stressors acting on larvae carry over into the adult stage they may interact with infectious dose of a vector-borne pathogen, producing a range of phenotypes for vector potential.

This putative aspartic protease was determined to be expressed in the infective larvae, young adults, and adult worms of A. cantonensis by quantitative real-time PCR.

A requirement for ap expression in the larval and adult CNS may be the underlying cause of the defects in hormone production and vitellogenesis described for ap mutations.

Flp-9 cDNA was isolated from larval stages of C. elegans but was not detected in adult worms, indicating that its expression is may be developmentally regulated.

After exposure from L1-larvae to young adults, 10-100 μg/L PS-NP could cause the reduction in reproductive capacity reflected by the endpoints of brood size and number of fertilized eggs in uterus.